ROCK ART PAPER - No. 2. PAGE 1. THE ROSARIO BIRDS

THE ROSARIO BIRDS:
POSSIBLE INDICATIONS OF EL NIÑO DISASTERS IN THE CHILEAN ATACAMA DESERT

First published in ALMOGAREN XXXII-XXXIII, 2001-2002, 303 - 328, Wien 2002; the Journal of INSTITUTUM CANARIUM, Wien, Austria. Text and graphics of this web version copyright by Maarten van Hoek, 2003.

KEYWORDS: Chile, petroglyphs, worldview, disasters, El Niño

SUMMARY:
Although rock art is a primary source of evidence of prehistoric peoples and
events, its imagery is often most enigmatic. This paper attempts to explain
the puzzling bird imagery at a petroglyphic site at Rosario in northern Chile.
I would like to carefully suggest that, because of the specific geographical
location and the anomalous graphical position, the bird imagery might be
related to the disastrous impact of a severe El Niño.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG:
Obwohl Felsbilder eine hervorragende Quelle für Zeugnisse von prähistorischen
Völkern und Vorfällen sein können, sind die Figuren oftmals sehr rätselhaft.
Es wird in dieser Arbeit die Hypothese aufgestellt, dass einige enigmatische
Bilder von Vögeln bei Rosario im Norden Chiles wegen ihrer speziellen
geografischen Lage und ihrer abweichenden grafischen Position möglicherweise
mit einer schweren El Niño - Wetterkatastrophe zu tun haben.

SUMARIO:
Aun el arte rupestre es una fuente de prueba de sociedades y eventos prehistoricos,
las imagenes muchas veces son muy enigmaticas. Este trabajo
intenta aclarar algunas imagenes de aves cabalÌsticas del sitio Rosario en el
norte de Chile. Se propone con cuidado que, por la ubicacion geografica
especial y la colocacion anormal en los paneles, las imagenes de las aves
estan relacionadas con el impacto desastroso de un El Niño muy fuerte.

INTRODUCTION
The Atacama Desert in Southern America (Fig. 1) is empty, brown and grey,
but above all dry and dusty. It is one of the driest areas in the world and many
areas have not had any rainfall for several hundred years. This is the result of
a climatic phenomenon known as thermal inversion. Cold waters brought from
the Antarctic by the Humboldt Current produce cold air at the surface, which
lifts the warmer air higher up. This inversion (normally the air becomes colder
the higher one gets) produces fog (mainly in a small coastal strip), but very
little or no rain, except during an El Niño. It is this latter phenomenon that will
play an important role in the discussion in this paper.

Also because much of the land in northern Chile is situated 2000 metres
above sea level, temperatures are relatively low in this desert, but in the
summer it can still be extremely hot. As a result of these extreme temperatures,
vegetation in the Atacama is extremely sparse. Only in river valleys with
sufficient water supply, at a few irrigated oases and near springs we find
vegetation and consequently animals and humans.

One often tends to see a desert as just one big sandpit. Although many parts
of the Atacama conform to this idea, it is not justified to regard this entire
desert as just one landscape. There indeed are extensive plains and hills of
sand or gravel, but also large boulder-fields, towering volcanoes, weird
mountains of salt and vast brown or white-crusted salt plains called salars.
The high Andes often provides an imposing backdrop for the Atacama and
although there is only little snowfall in the mountains, its altitude generates
enough water flowing down its slopes, to carve deep river gorges (quebradas)
on its steeper slopes and more gentle river valleys nearer the ocean. Most of
these rivers however, never reach the ocean; they dry out when entering the
lower plains of the central desert. However, a few of these rivers contain water
most time of the year creating inviting green oases, and especially these spots
have attracted people for several thousands of years.

Surprisingly, also many coastal areas of the Atacama have been populated
since thousands of years, despite the fact that also this coastal strip is as barren
and dry as the rest of the desert. This is due to the wealth of sea-life
supported by the nutritious cold waters of the Humboldt Current. As a result,
the world's richest fishing grounds are found just off the coast of Chile. This
abundance of fish in turn attracts other sea animals, many birds and, of course,
humans.

Desert biotopes naturally are small and consequently only support a small
number of plants and animals. Only those species occur that can survive in
these harsh surroundings. It is therefore a surprise to see how many different
species of animals are represented in the rich rock art imagery of the Atacama
Desert. Most ubiquitous are the camelids, of course. These animals, like the
Llama, Alpaca and the Vicuña once were (and often still are) a major resource
in the economy of many indigenous societies. But besides camelids we may
also spot other mammals, reptiles, amphibians and birds. Surprisingly
however, birds are relatively scarce in Atacameñan rock art, despite their
enormous importance in Andean mythology and cosmogony.

In this respect it is interesting to find a relatively large number of birdpetroglyphs
at one specific site, notably Rosario near the Peruvian border. During our surveys in July 2000, my wife Elles and I observed at least seven bird-petroglyphs at Rosario. They proved to be among the largest petroglyphs of the site. It is argued in this paper, that especially the four large bird depictions at Rosario possibly depict the mighty Condor. Importantly, these birds are unfamiliar in this coastal area. Together with their specific arrangement on the rock's surface their presence constitutes an enigmatic anomaly. This paper discusses the possible relation of the bird imagery at Rosario with a disaster brought about by one of the periodically occurring El Niños.

TYPES OF ROCK ART OF THE ATACAMA
Because in a desert stone is practically the only suitable material available,
also many Atacameñan societies mainly used stone in many different ways to
mark, enhance and organise their environment and to express their beliefs.
They used boulders and outcrops and hill slopes as canvas for different types
of rock art and thus produced some of the finest works of art in the world. The
Atacama notably proves to be one of the very few places on earth where three
much differing types of rock art are found together. The most common type of
rock art is the PETROGLYPH. World-wide we find rocks on which all sorts of
figures (iconic and non-iconic) have been carved, chiselled, pecked or scratched
out of the rock. Also in the Atacama this type predominates. Petroglyphs may
have been executed with rather deep grooves or cupules that show up clearly
in slanting sunlight, or they may have been pecked out very superficially, only
removing an extremely thin layer of the patinated surface of the rock, revealing
the original colour of the stone. Thus the difference in patination creates the
image.

Less frequent are PICTOGRAPHS or paintings on stone, although excellent
examples are found in the Atacama. Rare instances of painted petroglyphs
also occur, for instance in the Alto Loa region (Berenguer 1999: 21). There are
also some sites where petroglyphs and paintings are found combined, like at
Rosario where at least one painting of a camelid survived on a petroglyphic
panel, or at Itiza, where a few engravings are found in painted rock shelters
(Schiappacasse & Niemeyer 1996).

This part of South America is famous however, for its GEOGLYPHS. These
are often enormous figures that were made by either collecting small
(darker) boulders to form a figure on the lighter sand, or to remove boulders
and scree material to expose the lighter coloured sand which then makes the
figure. More than 120 sites with geoglyphs are known in an area stretching
between the Peruvian border and the Rio Loa in the south (MASMA-Sernatur
1999a).

A distribution map of the major rock art sites of the north Atacama region
(Fig. 2) proves that paintings mainly occur in its northern part and that
geoglyphs have a rather scattered distribution. Petroglyphs however, are almost
invariably found in or near the river valleys or gorges. But there is another
interesting aspect. The more southwards one travels, the more petroglyphic
sites are found further inland. This is simply explained by the fact that going
south, water is only permanently found in the river gorges nearer the Andes.

Geoglyphs on the contrary, are mainly related to the intensification of
ancient llama-caravans that once criss-crossed the desert (Muñoz & Briones
1996) and therefore are found both near the coast and far inland (MASMASernatur
1999a). It is however, remarkable that the main north-south caravan
route crossed the rivers almost exactly at those points where often extensive
petroglyphic sites, like Aroma, Conanoxa and Tarapacá 47, occur. Apparently,
the older petroglyphic sites remained important throughout the ages. In the far
north, near Arica, the major inland caravan route turned towards the coast and
it is at this important point of convergence that we find a major concentration
of rock art.

THE ARICA REGION, A CONCISE HISTORY
Near Arica in the north of Chile, there are relatively large coastal plains,
where several rivers coming from the east occasionally empty their scarce
waters into the Pacific Ocean. The river valleys near the coast are rather wide,
with a distinct flat floodplain. At these places the valleys are intensively
irrigated, but immediately outside these green strips the barren desert reigns.
Further inland the river valleys become more steep and wild. Rock art sites
are found from very near the coast up to the high ground just west of the
Andes, but a remarkable concentration occurs near Arica. The majority of the
petroglyphs and geoglyphs in this area are found in the valleys of the Rio
Lluta and the Rio San José, the latter area better known as the Valle de Azapa
(Fig. 3).

As can be expected, many societies inhabited this relatively favourable area,
starting with the Archaic Period of hunter-collectors. The oldest traces of these
peoples however are found in the high mountains east of Arica and dates of
7630 BC have been collected at for instance Tojotojone (MASMA-Sernatur
1999b). Between 6000 and 2000 BC peoples specialised in fishing appeared
on the coast. At one of the desert-beaches just north of Arica, the famous
mummies of the Chinchorro people have been discovered. These mummies
proved to be much older than the mummies from ancient Egypt and may date
from about 5000 BC, which proves that also the coastal areas around Arica
have been inhabited for many millennia.

Around 1500 BC there is a slight shift towards agriculture, although fishing
remained the most important way of life. Head-dresses appear, adorned with
the feathers of tropical birds, a first evidence of contacts with other areas of
South America (MASMA-Sernatur 1999b). Later still, around 500 BC, metal
is introduced and undecorated ceramics are produced in abundance. During
this period, dating from 400 BC to AD 400 and called the Alto Ramirez Phase
locally, people also introduced a yearly cycle of transhumance between the
high mountain area and the coast. An important consequence of this system
of verticality is that paths through the desert developed.

Around AD 300 agriculture intensified and pottery was adorned with black
geometric motifs on a red background. Later also white patterns, including
spirals, appeared on pottery. This period (AD 700 to AD 1000) is characterised
also by the influence of the Tiwanaku Culture near Lago Titicaca of Bolivia. A
major characteristic are the large defensive villages, called Pukaras.

Between AD 1000 and AD 1400 the Arica Culture flourished and frequently
big caravans of llamas carrying all sorts of goods and food travelled up and
down from mountain slopes to the coast. It is thought that during this period
the main bulk of geoglyphs was produced.

By AD 1400 the Inca Empire severely influenced the north of Chile and an
extensive network of Inca trails intensified contacts with remote areas. Then
came the Spanish and this event marks the end of the prehistory of South
America.

ROSARIO, THE SITE
A short distance north of Chinchorro beach, the Rio Lluta occasionally
empties its water into the Pacific Ocean. This place is the start of a long valley
that once provided an excellent connection with the ancient culture of
Tiwanaku, which had its administrative centre near Lago Titicaca, some 280
km NE of Arica. Also in this valley we find a lot of rock art (Fig. 3). Only a
short distance inland there is a fine collection of north-facing geoglyphs. Being
visible from big distances, it represents a true landmark for trade-caravans.
This site, called Lluta, has large anthropomorphs, llamas, birds and a mammal
in a typical upright position and a (seemingly) severed head. This latter figure
probably is a fox, depicted in the upright position so characteristic for Lari,
the musical fox in Andean mythology (Espinosa 1996).

About 15 kilometres further inland along the river valley, we find the
abandoned railway station called Estación Rosario. A few hundred meters
west of a small group of buildings at Rosario are two rather conspicuous
outcrop ridges of harder stone (Fig. 4), scarce in this type of desert-land,
located at the foot of a north (sun!) facing hill slope. The eastern part of the
ridge, nearer the farm buildings, forms the rock art site, which has been named
Rosario as well. It overlooks the flat floodplain (now mostly cultivated), the
slightly meandering river and the desert hills beyond. Although there hardly
ever falls any precipitation, a thick coastal fog often covers the area. Nowadays
the river valley near Rosario is irrigated, creating a striking contrast between
the green floodplain and the grey and yellowish sands and rocks of the
Atacama Desert.

The lower outcrop ridge, situated a few metres above a rather steep and
almost inaccessible sandy slope, has provided excellent surfaces for a fine
collection of engravings and one certain painting. Prehistoric earthquakes
caused parts of these outcrop ridges to tumble down the slope and also some
of these boulders have been decorated, sometimes rather profusely. A narrow
path runs just below the lower outcrop ridge, facilitating the examination of
many rock art panels. This path leads west towards a shallow rock shelter
with two vertical rock art panels on its projecting triangular roof. This roof
overhangs an artificial pit (large enough to contain a crouched human), which,
according to a passing by Aymara informant, could either have been used as
a storage pit or as a fireplace. It was completely clean and empty, however
(Fig. 5).

Many of the petroglyphs have been carved on surfaces that feature natural
depressions, looking like anthropic cupules. Just possibly these depressions
are responsible for the accumulation of the rock art at Rosario; some actually
have been incorporated into a design.

BIRD IMAGERY
Bird imagery is not ubiquitous, world-wide. European rock art for instance
is even rather poor in bird imagery, although some fine examples occur in the
Valcamonica of northern Italy. There are regions however, like in Africa, where
birds, especially ostrich, play a more important role in rock art traditions.

The reasons for selecting birds to be depicted on rock surfaces will differ
from culture to culture. For instance, Polynesian rock art, rather rich in bird
petroglyphs, often has a very special reason to depict birds. Well known, for
example, are the birdman petroglyphs of Easter Island and their relation with
the annual contest to collect an egg from a nearby islet, in order to become
chief of the clan (Lee 1992: 15). And in Hawai'i birds were important as
depictions of potential gods or as bearers of messages to the heavens and
ancestors (Lee & Stasack 1999: 116).

The concept that animals, especially birds and snakes, link the profane
world with the supernatural is a recurrent theme in almost every culture. It
also relates to the Andean cosmogony in which birds (especially Condors) play
an important role. The trinity human-bird-snake (Klein 1972: 48) is
considered to represent a supreme divinity often called Wiracocha, the Creator
God who is also known as the Staff God in many Andean cultures. It may now
be significant that especially these three elements appear close together on
panel 2 at Rosario, distinctly separated from the other engravings (Fig. 14).

It is also important to know that the association of birds with camelids
forms part of a pan-Andean pastoral cosmogony. Shepherds still tend to give
their llamas names of birds, like the mythical Chullumpi (a wild duck), the
Suri or Nañdu (the Andean ostrich), the Kiula or Tinamu (a kind of partridge)
and the Parina (the Andean flamingo) (Berenguer 1999: 24). These birds are
said to be the soul of the llama and they also assured the multiplication of the
herd. An exceptional engraving at Caspana, NE of Calama, may depict this
concept (Fig. 6): a large camelid has a bird, probably a Chullumpi, carved
inside its body (Gallardo, Sinclaire & Silva. 1999: 63). This specific relation
between certain birds and camelids is also present in the nocturnal sky: a dark
cloud of interstellar dust near the Southern Cross is said to represent the Kiula
bird. It is in a significant position very near Yakana, the Celestial Llama,
another prominent dark constellation of the Andean firmament (Berenguer
1999: 24-25).

FIGURES 1 to 6.

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